The South African
by Hamish Paterson
Address to SAMHS Jhb branch in November 2011Hamish opened his lecture by informing his audience that he would be telling them about the two battles of Philippi. This meant that they would be getting two battles in one sitting. He then went on to say that the battles are well known owing to the promise of Julius Caesar's ghost to his murderer Brutus that they would meet at Philippi. However, few know the tale of the two battles and their impact on subsequent history.
Some background is necessary. On Roman standards were carried were SPQR, The Senate and People of Rome. To the Romans their constitution was perfect and by the second half of the 2nd century BC Rome was in trouble. Wars in Greece and Asia had brought wealth to Rome beyond the dreams of avarice. It had also impoverished the peasantry that provided Rome's manpower. The Gracchi Brothers had tried to rectify the situation and were murdered for their pains.
The crisis finally struck towards the end of the 2nd century when Rome was involved in wars in Macedonia, Gaul and Africa. The consul Marius then recruited his men from those without property. After Africa Marius then had to repulse invasions of Italy. Unfortunately, he lacked political skills and was forced into retirement. He had created something of a monster of an army which was dependant on its general for its retirement bonus and plot of land.
Marius emerged from retirement and tried to snatch the command against Mithradates, King of Pontus, from his former subordinate, Sulla - who went to the army and marched on Rome. Marius fled and his supporters were butchered. Sulla then went east to deal with Mithradates. Marius returned and slaughtered Sulla's supporters and then died. Then Sulla returned. He came up with the idea of proscriptions. Your name went up on a list and your killer got part of your estate. Rome got the rest.
Sulla changed the Roman constitution to strengthen the Senate and wealthy. All he achieved was to precipitate a civil war in which Rome her allies. Furthermore he had not dealt with the problem of the Roman armies. This climaxed at the Pharsalus in 48 Be. Julius Caesar then strode the world like a Colossus until he was murdered on the Ides of March 44 BC
Incredibly his murderers, Brutus and Cassius had no plans on what to do after the homicide. They expected the rotting corpse of the Roman Republic to miraculously resurrect itself. This gave Mark Anthony his chance. In his oration, made famous by Shakespeare, he wins over the people to Caesar's cause. Historically, Brutus's oratical style was less appealing than Mark Anthony's.
The next months were complicated. First Cicero brokered a deal between Mark Anthony (the surviving consul) and the murderers. Then Octavian, Caesar's heir, arrived to claim his inheritance. In November 44 BC the consuls were assigned their provinces but in December 44BC, Cicero returns to Rome. He begins his speeches known as the Phillipics. (so named after the speeches that Demosthenes made against Philip of Macedon) Cicero's target was Mark Anthony. The Senate mobilized its forces and sent them to attack Anthony's men who besieging Mutina. The Senate was greatly helped by Octavian who had rapidly assumed his great uncle's mantle. While Cicero was declaiming the last of his Phillipics (14) the Senate's and Mark Anthony's forces met near Mutina (April 43 BC). The result was stalemate, the consuls were killed but the siege was lifted. This left Octavian in command. He asked if he could stand for the consulship, only to be told by the political maestros of the Senate that he was too young. It is obvious from Cicero's letters that the Senate was just using him. However, the "Senate's Army" was really Octavian's. He marched on Rome and the Senate suddenly found him to be old enough to be consul. Then he showed his skill by forming the Second Triumvirate with Mark Anthony and Lepidus. This triumvirate was, unlike the first, given legal recognition. Now the triumvirate needed money to pay the armies required to hunt down Caesar's killers. They used Sulla's ploy of proscriptions. The most prominent victim was Cicero. He was hunted down and killed. His head was taken to the rostrum at the Roman forum and nailed there by the tongue. Mark Anthony had proved a bitter critic.
Meanwhile in the eastern part of the empire Brutus and Cassius were gathering their forces. At the beginning of 42 BC both sides held conferences to plan strategy. In the early part year Cassius campaigned in Lycia, while Brutus took Rhodes. In mid-July the murderers met at Sardis. Here Brutus was visited at Sardis by Caesar's ghost and informed that they would meet again at Philippi. They then moved into Greece in September 42 BC. Eluding the fleet of the murderers allies Mark Anthony and Octavian moved their army to Greece in mid-September 42 BC.
Both armies closed on Philippi. Brutus and Cassius arrived first with 17 legions and a heterogeneous force of 17 000 cavalry. Seven of their legions used to belong to Julius Caesar and had serious doubts about fighting for his killers. Octavian and Mark Anthony's force numbered 19 legions, seven of them veterans and a homogenous force of 13 000 Celtic horse.
Hamish then briefly described the equipment and tactics of the legionary of the late Roman Republic. The position taken by Brutus and Cassius were well sited but were separated by about 2 700 metres. This made mutual support difficult. However, they held the better position which eased foraging. Once Octavian and Mark Anthony arrived they deployed their army every day forcing the murderers to do the same but they did not come off the high ground. This game of chicken came to an end on 3 October 42 BC when Mark Anthony outflanked Cassius's men and took his camp. This caused Cassius's force to disintegrate and flee. Octavian had deployed his men in support but they were caught off guard and dispersed. Octavian was sick in bed but warned by his physician fled into the marsh and spent three days there. Meanwhile Cassius commit suicide in despair.
This battle is often called a draw but in reality it was a disaster for Brutus and Cassius. Cassius was dead and his men dispersed beyond recall. By contrast Octavian came out of the marsh alive and most of his men returned to their standards. Both sides resumed the daily game of deploying, Brutus hoping to wear his opponents out. No doubt his nights were made uncomfortable by visits by Julius Caesar. However, on 23 October 42BC he was brought to battle. An attempt out flank Octavian weakened his centre which collapsed together with his left wing. His right soon followed. In despair he committed suicide. His body's? Either it received honourable burial or his head was thrown at the feet of Caesar's statue. The next battles would be between the victors, Octavian and Mark Anthony.
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